Privatdozent or Privatdozentin, abbreviated PD, P.D. or Priv.-Doz., is an academic title conferred at some European universities, especially in German-speaking countries, to someone who holds certain formal qualifications that denote an ability and permission to teach a designated subject at the highest level. To be granted the title Priv.-Doz. by a university, a recipient has to fulfill the criteria set by the university which usually require excellence in research, teaching, and further education. In its current usage, the title indicates that the holder has completed their habilitation and is therefore granted permission to teach and examine students independently without having a full professorship (chair). With respect to the level of academic achievement, the title of Privatdozent is comparable to that of Associate Professor, Senior Lecturer, or maître de conférences détenteur de l'habilitation à diriger des recherches (HDR) (France).